This article comprises of detailed
study of Cyber-crimes along with concept of Cyber terrorism. You will get the depth
information about the cyber-crimes in this article, that all you need to know.
1.
INTRODUCTION
Cyber-crimes
are those that are committed through the use of a computer, including phishing,
counterfeiting, cyberbullying, pornography, spamming, sending a barrage of
emails, selling illegal goods, etc. Although cyber-crime has its general
meaning as any illegal act by using computer or technology or by using
internet. Cyber Security is defined as a crime in which a computer is subject
to crime or used as a tool to commit a crime. Cybersecurity laws protect access
to information, privacy, communications, intellectual property, and the freedom
of expression in relation to the use of the Internet, websites, email,
computers, mobile phones, software, and hardware, such as data storage devices.
They also assist in preventing or reducing large-scale damage from cyber-crime
activities. Global legal issues now account for a higher percentage of Internet
traffic. The application is difficult because cyber laws vary by jurisdiction
and country, and the restitution ranges from fines to imprisonment.
Cyber
terrorism is the use of the internet to carry out violent
acts that cause substantial bodily harm or death, or threaten to do so, in
order to advance political or ideological goals through intimidation. Acts of
deliberate, large-scale disruption of computer network, especially of
personal computers attached to the Internet by means of tools such
as computer viruses, computer worms, phishing, malicious software,
hardware methods, programming scripts can all be forms of internet
terrorism.
Cyber-crime is one of the most crucial
problems for countries around the world these days. Includes unauthorized
access to information and violate security such as privacy, passwords, etc.
Cyber theft is part of the cybercrime, which means robbery performed via
computer or the Internet. With the increase in the number of cyber security
fraud and crimes, the government is developing refined rules to protect
people's interests and protect them from any negative events on the Internet.
2. EVOLUTION OF INFORMATION AND
COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY:
Man is inquisitorial by his nature and
human civilization on this earth has been striving to innovate and invent all
possible technologies for the conveniences of his life. Evolution of
information technology also has the same teleological explanation. The
information society of modern era is the culmination of the electronic
development and the invention of communication systems way back towards the end
of the 19th century. The contemporary incarnation of various sorts of
information and communication technologies have been evolved through different
phases.
William Sturgeon invented the
electromagnet in 1825 which led to an evolution in electronic communication.
Later on, three telegraph systems based on electromagnet were developed by
Joseph Henry in the year 1830, by William Cooke and Charles Wheatstone in the
year 1837 and by Samuel F. B. Morse who improved Henry’s invention. Since the
year 1876 when telephone was patented by Graham Bell the sapling has been sown
for the fast-moving telephonic global communication system of today about more
than a century thereafter. Graham Bell’s attempt to improve the telegraph
resulted in telephone. Until 1877, telegraph remained the only means of
long-distance communication, but the position was changed, and the telephone
emerged as the rival technology in the field of communication. Wireless
technology is the basis cause for the development of ICTs. The technology that
has been developed to enable wireless connections has been evolved around
different standards and radio band services, the forebear of which were those
electromagnetic waves discovered and patented for the first time by the Italian
inventor, Guglielmo Marconi at the British Post Office in the year 1895 and
used it to send coded messages across the Atlantic in the year 1905.
Invention of transistors in 1947 led to
the production of faster and more reliable electronic computers. In 1958,
Control Data Corporation introduced the first fully transistorized computer
designed by Seymour Cray. Miniaturization continued through the 1960s and in 1965,
the first successful commercial minicomputer was launched called PDP-8.
Computers at this stage meant mainframe computers. By late 1960s, big
businesses started relying on computers and the first PC was introduced in 1975.
This article revealed that between I991
and I997, the Internet users changed qualitatively and quantitatively as text
users were joined by the new curious users. While the internet has become basis
with human life, it has thus given birth to a number of informational harms,
and established legal norms are the worst casualty. The criminal behavior of
the netizens is piercing the legal fabric and the harms have over clouded the
boons of the Internet. Flagrant violation of netiquette, ignorance of group
policies, aggressive advertising, etc. are sometimes met with tolerance,
sometimes with vitriol. Today, the Internet is omnipresent and is gaining
popularity equally among academicians, military personnel, businesses, State
departments and billions of common users. Computers, the lifeline of the
Internet, have now become a domestic appliance.
3. DEFINITION OF CYBERCRIME:
Cybercrime can be defined as any
criminal activity carried out by means of computer as a tool run through
internet. The definition of cybercrime and the differentiation of various types
of cybercrime are extremely important for all to evaluate its impact.
4. ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF CRIME:
The essential elements of cyber-crime
are as follows;
Actus reus: Merely guilty intention is not enough
to fix criminal liability but some act or omission on the part of the doer is
necessary to complete the offence. The actus reus requires proof of an act or
omission. The actus reus is described as “such result of human conduct as the
law seeks to prevent. However, such acts do not incur criminal liability if
they are done in a state of automatism ‘like when in sleep, the accused kills
someone, sets fire to a house, and causes harm to someone in a state of mental
debility, state of intoxication, under anesthetics or alcohol and hypnotic
influences. To absolve him from criminal liability, the accused must prove that
the automatism was not self-induced. This mainly applies to crimes of basic
intent. It was held in Director of Public Prosecutions v. Majewski,
that automatism, which is self-induced by other means, may be a defense even to
crime of basic intent.
Mens rea: ―The jurisprudence of today knows
that no crime can be committed unless there is a mens rea, i.e., a guilty
state of mind. The mental element forms the other important ingredient of
crime. The act remains the same while the state of mind makes the act reus and
hence an offence. Almost all crimes require proof of a mental element of some
sort. Every offence requires a particular state of mind expressed in the
particular provision of the law by the words: with intent, recklessly,
unlawfully, maliciously, unlawfully and maliciously, wilfully, knowingly,
knowing or believing, fraudulently, dishonestly, corruptly, allowing and
permitting, expressing various states of mind which are different from each
other.
5. DOCTRINE OF ACTUS REUS AND MENS REA
IN CYBER CRIME:
a) Actus reus in cybercrimes:
Actus reus in cybercrimes has become a
challenge as the entire act is committed in intangible surroundings. The
perpetrator may leave some footmarks in the machine itself though it becomes a
herculean task for the law-enforcers to prove it in the law courts as, it is
required to be in physical form or at least in such a form where it becomes
admissible in evidence. Every time a computer is moved by a human hand, any of
the following actions may follow which are commonly regarded as actus reus:
· Trying to do some act using the
computer.
· Either attempting to access data stored
on a computer or from outside through the said computer.
· Every time the computer is used by its
user while gaining access, signals pass through various computers which are
made to perform some function when the command given by the user pass through
it. Each such function falls under the term actus reus.
b) Doctrine of mens rea in cybercrimes:
Mens rea is recognized as an essential
element of crime. With the advent of e-crimes, the legal world faces the
difficulty, besides many others to pinpoint mens rea in cybercrimes. In
cybercrimes, one should see what the state of mind of a hacker was and that the
hacker knew that the access was unauthorized. Thus, a particular computer need
not be intended by a hacker, it is enough if the unauthorized access was to any
computer. Thus, following two ingredients form the mens rea applied to a
hacker:
· The access intended to be secured must
have been unauthorized
· There should be awareness on the part
of the hacker regarding the access.
6. CLASSIFICATION OF CYBERCRIME:
Cybercrimes can generally be divided into the following
categories:
- A. Cybercrimes affecting individuals.
- B. Cybercrimes affecting economy.
- C. Cybercrimes affecting national security.
A. Cybercrimes affecting Individuals:
Stalking: Stalking is not a new type of crime;
it has existed from time immemorial. In the 1980s, stalking was
first recognized as a criminal offense. Traditional stalking techniques include
keeping an eye on the victim, following them, sending letters and unexpected gifts,
and getting in touch with the victim's friends, family, and colleagues. In the modern
era of information technology, cyber stalking simply refers to the use of electronic
communications to pursue, harass, or contact another person without their
consent.
Human
Trafficking: This crime involves a variety of illegal activities, such as the
trafficking of people for the sex trade, illegal immigration, the trafficking
of people to work in sweatshops, as quasi-indentured servants, or as domestics,
as well as the borderline illegal practice of buying brides online from various
matchmaking websites. This crime, in the era of information technology, taking
place by showing different kinds of opportunities through websites and this way
grave the victims.
Cyber-defamation: It is the wrongful and intentional
publication of words or behaviour concerning another person, which has the
effect of hamper that person's status, good name, or reputation in society. A
defamatory remark against someone in the cyberspace is known as
cyber-defamation.
Privacy infringement: Privacy infringement in cybercrime
means the criminal activity where the offender access someone’s data or
information from one electronic devices or computer with the consent of that
person. In the contemporary age of information technology, increasing use of
computers and computer network for the storage and transmission of personal
data, under various circumstances make it possible for collating all
information’s about a person, which he himself mayn’t even be aware of.
Phishing: Phishing may also be called as
identity theft in common language. It undermines the confidence in the
integrity of commercial transactions and invades individual privacy as well.
The term identity theft refers to a host of frauds, thefts, forgeries, false statements
and an impersonation involving the use of another person’s identifying
information’s. Phishing or identity theft facilitated by the internet is
growing fast along with the growth of e-commerce because internet provides to
perpetrators low-cost but efficient methods for capturing the identities of
unsuspecting victims.
B. Cybercrimes affecting Economy:
Hacking: Hacking into web sites, also called
owning the site, is currently of epidemic proportions. The term hacking
traditionally describes the penetration of computer systems, which isn‘t
carried out with the aims of manipulation, sabotage or espionage, but for the
pleasure of overcoming the technical security measures. However, with the
increasing use of computer networks by civil, academic, commercial and military
organisations, the potential of hacking was realized by the criminals and it
became the basis for almost all types of cybercrimes. Many of these hackers
have quasi-political agendas.
Cracking: Cracking is a name given to malicious
or criminal hacking. It is act of breaking into your computer systems without
your knowledge and consent and has tampered with precious confidential data and
information related to trade secrets. The most infamous of these was Kevin
Mitnick, who was arrested and held without bail based on a $300 million
estimate of the damage he caused. He copied proprietary software from computers
owned by cellular telephone manufacturers.
Cyber Vandalism: Vandalism means deliberately damaging
property of another. Thus, cyber vandalism means destroying or damaging the
data or information stored in computer when a network service is stopped or
disrupted. It may include within its purview any kind of physical harm done to
the computer of any person. These acts may take the form of the theft of a
computer, some part of a computer or a peripheral or a device attached to the
computer.
Intellectual Property Crimes: Intellectual property consists of a
bunch of rights. Any unlawful act by which the owner is deprived completely or
partially of his rights is a crime. The most common type of intellectual
property rights violation in the information technology era are- software
piracy, infringement of copyright, trademark, patents, designs and service mark
violation, theft of computer source code, etc.
Internet Time Thefts: Basically, Internet time theft comes
under hacking. It is the use of the internet hours by an unauthorised person on
the cost of payment made by any genuine person. The person who gets access to
someone else‘s internet service provider (ISP), user identity (ID) and
password, either by hacking or by gaining access to it by illegal means, uses
it to access the internet without the other person‘s knowledge. One can
identify time theft if your internet time has to be recharged often, despite
infrequent usage.
C. Cybercrimes affecting National
Security:
Cyber-Terrorism: it is the convergence of terrorism
and cyberspace. For denoting any cybercrime as cyber-terrorism, an attack
should result in violence against person or property, or at least cause enough
harm to generate panic among peoples. Attacks causing death or bodily injury,
explosions, plane crashes, water contamination, or severe economic loss would
be some examples. In some aspects terrorism is similar to organised crime; in
fact, it may be called as organised crime with a political motive. In any
event, as far as cybercrime is concerned, terrorism takes on two distinct
forms: (1) The facilitation of regular terrorism which is the traditional range
of terrorist activities, such as planning attacks, recruiting new members, and
disseminating propaganda and (2) Attacks against the internet and other closed
networks with a view to undermining the infrastructure of a country, such as
disrupting power grids, air traffic control, and many other essential services
upon which modern communities rely.
Web Site Defacements: Web site defacement is the act of
gaining access to the web server (which is often accomplished by identity
theft) and corrupting content on the site’s pages. Many times, the defacers are
motivated by political or social reasons. Again, there is a thin line between
protected expression and crime. There was a marked increase in site defacements
after the 9/11 terrorist action.
Cyber warfare: Now cyberspace is being used as a
battlefield by professional hackers of non-friendly countries against each
other. Cyber warfare is internet-based conflict involving politically motivated
attacks on information and information systems. Cyber warfare attacks can
disable official websites and networks, disrupt or disable essential services,
steal or alter classified data, and cripple financial systems among many other
possibilities. The cyber warfare has gained so much favour among the military
strategists that most of the armies have dedicated cyber warfare teams for the
defensive as well as offensive operations. In the consequence of such
development’s questions are being raised in public international law as to the
responsibilities of the nations and their rights to retaliate etc.
7. CONCEPTION AND DEFINITION OF
TERRORISM:
The term cyber terrorism being a new
species of crime of digital world connotes a convergence of terrorism and
cyberspace. It is claimed that the increasing much dependence on the Internet
affords the terrorist organisations a new platform to pursue their social,
economic and political objectives, staging attacks or threat against computer
networks and information system. The definitions of what counts terrorism is a
slippery understanding between conventional terrorism and cyber terrorism; and
it would be difficult to understand the nature of cyber terrorism unless we
have an understanding about terrestrial terrorism.
In the case of cyber terrorism
electronic networks, and computer technology, are used as weapon. Attacks
through the Internet need to have a terrorist component in order to be labelled
cyber terrorism. Although cyber terrorism is a universal phenomenon,
threatening the civilians as well as across the world, even then there has been
no exhaustive definition of the term; and in absence of such definition the law
enforcement authorities, criminal administration and academicians would be with
empty hand to curb the growing menace of cyber terrorism.
8. CHARACTERISTICS OF CYBER TERRORISM:
In the 1980s, the term cyber terrorism
was defined by Barry Collin to represent the convergence of cyberspace and
terrorism. Since that time, the term has continued to change in definition, and
has had its scope expanded to the point where it has become a wholly subjective
term that has lost its true focus i.e., where true terror and cyberspace
converge. In addition, disruption, not destruction must be included as a tool
to be utilised by cyber terrorists. Every advance in computing power continues
to increase the usefulness of computers and their associated networks to
law-abiding citizens. Simultaneously, these computers increase the power of the
weapons available to cyber terrorist and criminals.
The implications of computer
technology’s dual nature, as both a tool and weapon, must be understood in the
information age. The notion that terrorists are ignorant and unskilled needs to
change. With the proliferation of the Internet, global reach by terrorists to
potential target intelligence and its dissemination amongst their members and
affiliated groups is now possible in near real time. In the age of information
technology terrorists are swiftly becoming more progressive and adaptive in
their organisational structures and communications; timely information plays a
big role in just how effective an organisation operates. Exploiting the global
information infrastructure and its underlying technologies, terrorists can
operate in a virtual digital world that provides them with numerous advantages
for communication and coordination efforts, as well as serve their endeavour of
ongoing development and expansion.
9. ELEMENTS OF CYBER TERRORISM:
Criminal jurisprudence is the corner
stone for the criminal administration to investigate and bring the cyber
terrorists to the court of law. To understand the criminal jurisprudence of
cyber terrorism, it is necessary to have a better understanding about the
elements of the crime of cyber terrorism, which are being cited below:
a. Actus reus:
The actus reus may be described as such
result of human conduct which have been prevented by the law. However, such
acts do not incur criminal liability if they are done in a state of automatism.
To absolve him from criminal liability, the accused must prove that the
automatism was not self-induced. This mainly applies to crimes of basic intent.
It was held in Director of Public Prosecutions v. Majewski, that
automatism which is self-induced by other means, may be a defence even to crime
of basic intent. Merely guilty intention is not enough to fix criminal
liability but some act or omission on the part of the doer is necessary to
complete the offence. The actus reus requires proof of an act or omission.
Any of the following actions may follow
which are commonly regarded as actus reus.
a)
Trying
to do some act using the computer.
b) Either attempting to access data stored on a
computer or from outside through the said computer.
c)
Every
time the computer is used by its user while gaining access, signals pass through
various computers which are made to perform some function when the command
given by the user pass through it. Each such function falls under the term
actus reus.
b. Mens rea:
The mental element forms the other
important ingredient of crime. The act remains the same while the state of mind
makes the act reus and hence an offence. The jurisprudence of today knows that
no crime can be committed unless there is a mens rea, i.e., a guilty state of
mind. Almost all criminal acts require proof of a mental element of some sort
so as the cyber terrorism. Every offence requires a particular state of mind
expressed in the particular provision of the law by the words: with intent,
recklessly, unlawfully, maliciously, unlawfully and maliciously, wilfully,
knowingly, knowing or believing, fraudulently, dishonestly, corruptly, allowing
and permitting, expressing various states of mind which are different from each
other. The doctrine of mens rea originated in the idea that a man should not be
held criminally responsible and liable to punishment unless he is morally
blameworthy. Thus, the doctrine of mens rea may be summed up loosely in these
words: a man will not as a general rule, be held to be criminally responsible
unless:
- a)
he
was acting voluntarily;
- b)
knew
what he was doing; and
- c) in
those crimes where particular consequences form part of the actus reus, foresaw
the likelihood of those consequences.
c. Strict liability:
Strict liability negates mens rea. Even
though a person’s conduct is not attributable to any wrongful act or
negligence, he is still held criminally liable. This is called strict
liability; such a liability is imposed by a statute. Since the CIIs are
sensitive enough and any kind of sabotage to them may cause loss of human lives
and properties, hence, cyber terrorists should be dealt with high hands and
strict liability principle should be applied in such cases. Thus, criminal law
has evolved from times immemorial up to cyber age and is still being developing
constantly.
9. CYBER TERRORISM AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK:
Cyber terrorism can be international,
domestic, state or political, but the core act involving a combination of the
terrorist act and computer always remains the same. However, lack of
universally unanimous definition makes the situation strenuous. India has
always been tough towards the terrorism; hence in the case of cyber terrorism
also our nation has equipped its Information Technology Act, 2000 with
stringent law as provided under Section 66F. However, when the original IT Act
was drafted by T. Viswanathan, the idea of cyber terrorism wasn’t in the
parental legislation. However, in the year 2008 after considering the incidents
of international and national events of cyber terrorism, it has been realized
that there must be a stringent provision as well as punishment of cyber
terrorism. Thus, Section 66F has been inserted in the Act by virtue of
Information Technology (Amendment) Act, 2008.
“66F. Punishment for cyber terrorism—
(1) Whoever,-
(A) with intent to threaten the unity,
integrity, security or sovereignty of India or to strike terror in the people
or any section of the people by –
(i) denying or cause the denial of
access to any person authorised to access computer resource; or (ii) attempting
to penetrate or access a computer resource without authorisation or exceeding
authorised access; or
(iii) introducing or causing to
introduce any Computer contaminant; and by means of such conduct causes or is
likely to cause death or injuries to persons or damage to or destruction of
property or disrupts or knowing that it is likely to cause damage or disruption
of supplies or services essential to the life of the community or adversely
affect the critical information infrastructure specified under section 70, or
(B) knowingly or intentionally penetrates
or accesses a computer resource without authorisation or exceeding authorised
access, and by means of such conduct obtains access to information, data or
computer database that is restricted for reasons of the security of the State
or foreign relations; or any restricted information, data or computer database,
with reasons to believe that such information, data or computer database so
obtained may be used to cause or likely to cause injury to the interests of the
sovereignty and integrity of India, the security of the State, friendly
relations with foreign States, public order, decency or morality, or in
relation to contempt of court, defamation or incitement to an offence, or to
the advantage of any foreign nation, group of individuals or otherwise, commits
the offence of cyber terrorism.
(2) Whoever commits or conspires to commit
cyber terrorism shall be punishable with imprisonment which may extend to
imprisonment for life.”
The role of law a regulator of human
conduct has made an entry into cyberspace and is trying to cope with manifolds
challenges. It is salutary step by the Indian government that to introduce
Section 66F to combat the menace of cyber terrorism. Section 66-F has
introduced a new species of cybercrime in the statute, saying that anyone who
intentionally in order to threaten the unity of the country strikes terror
using the electronic means, commits cyber terrorism. The section says that by
using the electronic medium, the terrorist alters the commands in the computer,
computer resource and thereby, disturbs the entire electronic setup in the
country as a result of which havoc is caused on a large scale. By incorporating
sections 66F, 70, 70A and 70B, the lawmakers have filled-in the most crucial
missing links in the legal apparatus. The definition of cyber terrorism and its
punishment is a statutory step to control the menace of unprecedented growth of
cyber terrorism in India.
Although it has been abruptly
incorporated taking the spirit of foreign nation, in Indian settings it
requires more attention on the following heads. There are certain vague terms
used in Section 66F as defamation, contempt of court etc. which needs to be either
clarified or omitted from the provision, because there should be no ambiguity
in any legislation. Cyber terrorism is a reality, and so is cyber security.
Therefore, provisions for cyber security must be incorporated in IT Act so that
the law relating to critical information infrastructure, cyber terrorism and
cybercrimes could be supplemented. Besides these the recommendations made by
the Malimath Committee Report must be appreciated so as to prevent the
cyber offences.
11. CONCLUSION:
The conclusion and suggestions of a
research work arrived at after completion of all chapters covering different
heads of the thesis is not a monolithic one. They are, more often than not,
layered one, i.e., resulting of the sedimentation of all chapters. It is here remarkable
to state that in a research work it is not possible to proceed with
unencumbered arguments in most of the circumstances. Thus, these conclusions
and submissions must also be read in conjunction with conclusions at the end of
each chapter.
Cyber terrorism is a new manifestation
of cybercrime of the digital world and more vicious one. The democratic States
which have been evolved for the welfare and security of their citizens, they
are now being targeted in the virtual world by cyber terrorists. Modus operandi
of committing cyber terrorism mainly involves illegal interference in computer,
computer system and computer network operation. The stimulus behind such
interference is to cause or attempt or facilitates the savagery on the grounds
of political, ethnic, social or religious. Cyber terrorists might not be
menacing to kill people directly, as traditional terrorist attack normally
does, but one cyber-attack could make life very difficult, may be even
destroying or severely damaging the complete economic and social system of one
country. Cyber terrorists are those people who use cyber terror to achieve
political or social change. They can take advantage of a technique already
perfected by hackers called a distributed denial of service attack. By eliminating
certain data networks, cyber-terrorists could cripple everything from
telecommunications and power grids to hospitals and banking.
A very perilous attack that cyber-terrorists
could launch would be one against the Internet. Cyber terrorism is a serious
issue that pertains to us all, which must be carefully studied in order to
understand how its networks can be effectively countered by networks of
computer security experts and law enforcement officials. The ability to
identify cyber attackers is now enabled from highly sophisticated specialists.2
In response to cyber terrorism, and faced with the apprehension that networks
of terror may become endless because of the universality and flexibility of the
Internet, government agencies, industries, and other organisations have applied
a variety of security measures. Cyber terrorism doesn’t know any political
boundary, neither for its commission nor for its impact. In such crimes, the
terrorist in one country often targets victims in a different country due to
which task of law enforcement agencies becomes more complicated as these
institutions are territorially based. As we know that our world has been
composed of a series of sovereign countries and each country has its own
territorial jurisdiction for the investigation. When an investigating officer
succeeds in establishing the geographic identity of the perpetuator of cyber
terrorism, he is not without hurdles in pursuing his investigation. This is
because the identified geographic location may fall beyond the jurisdictional
powers of the law enforcement agencies that he belongs to.
Cyber terrorism is a transnational
crime and what we need to control is an international legislation which needs
unanimity. The menace of cyber terrorism is a „technological scorn‟ which is not confined to one or two
countries but the whole world is at stack and India is no exception to this new
age menace. In addition to it stringent and effective national laws are also
required. Although India is not being armed with specific statute to fight with
the menace of cyber terrorism, except the Information Technology Act, 2000 and
National Cyber Security Policy, 2013, even then the IT Act, 2000 by the virtue
of Amendment of 2008, deals with cybercrimes and in particular Section 66F provides
definition and punishment for cyber terrorism. Section 66F has introduced a new
species of cybercrime in the statute, saying that anyone who intentionally in
order to threaten the unity of the country strikes terror using the electronic
means, commits cyber terrorism. The cyber terrorist while altering the commands
in the computer, computer resource and computer network, disturbs the critical
information infrastructure in the country as a result of which threatening the
unity, integrity, security or sovereignty of India, friendly relations with
foreign States, public order, decency or morality, or in relation to contempt
of court, defamation or incitement to an offence, or to the advantage of any
foreign nation, group of individuals; or to strike terror in the people or any
section of the People of India. By incorporating Sections 66F, 70, 70A and 70B
the lawmakers have filled-in the most crucial missing links in the legal
apparatus.
The final conclusion reached by the
researcher is that the hypotheses on the study are found to a substantial level
and the laws in the Information Technology Act 2000 and its (Amendment) Act,
2008 must be made more progressive in accordance with the recommendations cited
here to deal with the issues raised by the advancement of computer technology.
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