The top 10 landmark judgments of the Supreme Court of India most relevant for UPSC preparation focus on constitutional doctrines, fundamental rights, and governance principles frequently tested in Prelims and Mains.​

Essential Cases List

s Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973): Introduced the basic structure doctrine, limiting Parliament's amendment powers under Article 368.​

s Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978): Expanded Article 21 to require "right, just, and fair" procedures, linking Articles 14, 19, and 21 as the golden triangle.​

s Minerva Mills v. Union of India (1980): Reinforced basic structure by striking down parts of the 42nd Amendment that prioritized Directive Principles over fundamental rights.​

s Waman Rao v. Union of India (1981): Clarified basic structure's prospective application.​

s Indra Sawhney v. Union of India (1992): Upheld 27% OBC reservation but capped total at 50% and excluded creamy layer.

s S.R. Bommai v. Union of India (1994): Limited Article 356 misuse, making President's Rule justiciable and promoting federalism.​

s Vishakha v. State of Rajasthan (1997): Established guidelines against workplace sexual harassment, later codified as POSH Act.​

s Shreya Singhal v. Union of India (2015): Struck down Section 66A of IT Act as vague, protecting online free speech under Article 19.​

s K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India (2017): Declared right to privacy a fundamental right under Articles 14, 19, and 21.​

s Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India (2018): Decriminalized consensual same-sex relations by reading down Section 377 IPC.​

UPSC Relevance

These cases underpin polity questions on judicial review, federalism, reservations, and rights expansion, often appearing in MCQs or essays.

Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978) delivered its key ruling by expanding Article 21's protection of life and personal liberty, mandating that any deprivation must follow a procedure that is "right, just, and fair," rather than merely one established by law.​

Linking the Golden Triangle

The Court ruled that Articles 14 (equality), 19 (freedoms), and 21 mutually reinforce each other—any law impinging on personal liberty must pass tests of non-arbitrariness under Article 14, reasonableness under Article 19, and fairness under Article 21. This overturned the siloed approach of earlier precedents.​

Rejecting Passport Impoundment

On facts, the Court invalidated the arbitrary impounding of Maneka's passport without hearing or reasons, upholding her right to travel abroad as part of personal liberty while preserving Sections 10(3)(c) and 10(5) of the Passports Act.​

Broader Implications

This introduced an Indian version of substantive due process, enabling Article 21 to encompass dignity, privacy, and more, fueling judicial activism in rights expansion.

Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978) overruled the restrictive interpretation of Article 21 established in A.K. Gopalan v. State of Madras (1950) by expanding the scope of personal liberty and introducing substantive due process standards.​

Rejecting Compartmentalization

A.K. Gopalan had treated fundamental rights as watertight compartments, holding that Articles 14, 19, and 21 operated independently—Article 21 only required a "procedure established by law," not one that was fair or just. Maneka rejected this, declaring Articles 14 (equality), 19 (freedoms), and 21 (life and liberty) as interlinked, forming a "golden triangle" where any law depriving liberty must satisfy the reasonableness test under all three.​

Introducing Fairness Requirement

Gopalan permitted arbitrary procedures if legislatively sanctioned, limiting personal liberty to physical restraint. Maneka overruled this by mandating that procedures be "right, just, and fair," aligning with natural justice principles and overruling Gopalan's narrow view, as echoed in Justice Fazl Ali's Gopalan dissent.​

Lasting Doctrinal Shift

This shift empowered judicial review of laws for arbitrariness, paving the way for Article 21's evolution to include rights like privacy and dignity, fundamentally altering constitutional jurisprudence from procedural to substantive protections.

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                         Impact of Maneka Gandhi case on Article 21

Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978) fundamentally transformed Article 21 of the Indian Constitution, which guarantees that no person shall be deprived of life or personal liberty except by procedure established by law.​

Overruling Narrow Precedents

Prior to this case, A.K. Gopalan v. State of Madras (1950) had interpreted Article 21 restrictively, confining "personal liberty" to physical freedom and allowing any legislatively prescribed procedure, even if arbitrary. The Supreme Court rejected this, holding that the procedure must be "right, just, and fair," effectively introducing substantive due process akin to the U.S. model without explicitly adopting the term.​

Forming the Golden Triangle

The judgment interlinked Articles 14 (equality), 19 (freedoms), and 21, mandating that any deprivation of liberty must satisfy all three—any law failing this test would be unconstitutional. This expansive reading elevated Article 21 from a mere procedural safeguard to a bulwark protecting a broad spectrum of rights.​

Expansive Rights Incorporation

Post-Maneka, Article 21 evolved to encompass rights to privacy, health, shelter, education, clean environment, speedy trial, and dignity, as seen in later cases like Puttaswamy (2017) and Hussainara Khatoon. It strengthened judicial review, curbing executive overreach and ensuring reasonableness in laws affecting liberty.

Howdid Maneka Ghandhi case overrule AK Gopalan case

Compulsorily registrable documents are those that the law mandates to be registered to ensure legality, transparency, and protection of rights, especially in immovable property transactions. Non-registration of such documents generally renders them ineffective in creating, transferring, or proving any legal rights or interests over the property.

Types of Compulsorily Registrable Documents

Under the Indian Registration Act, 1908, and relevant property laws like the Transfer of Property Act, 1882, the registration of certain documents relating to immovable property is compulsory. These include:

s Sale deeds of immovable property valued at or above one hundred rupees, which covers almost all real estate transactions.

s Gifts of immovable property.

s Leases of immovable property for a term exceeding one year.

s Non-testamentary instruments evidencing the creation, assignment, limitation, or extinction of rights, titles, or interests in immovable property.

s Documents transferring or assigning court decrees or orders relating to immovable property.

s Receipts for “Nazrana” or premium for lease agreements, above specified thresholds.

s Wills creating interests in immovable property valued over the prescribed amount also require registration, though testamentary documents have specific rules.

These documents must be presented for registration within a stipulated period, usually four months from execution, extendable by another four months with permitted fines. The aim is to bring transparency, prevent fraud, and provide public notice of property rights.​

Effect of non-registration

According to Section 49 of the Registration Act, 1908, if a document which is compulsorily required to be registered is not registered, the consequences are significant and severe:

s The document cannot operate to create, transfer, assign, declare, limit, or extinguish any right, title, or interest in the immovable property. In other words, it is legally ineffective concerning the property involved.

s The document cannot be accepted as evidence in any legal proceedings to establish any transaction relating to the property.

s Such a document is void against subsequent purchasers in good faith who register their title, ensuring protection for innocent third parties.

s Non-registration can lead to legal penalties or fines and may invalidate the transaction itself, causing serious issues in ownership clarity and enforcement of rights.

The foundational purpose of this rule is to maintain a clear, public record of property dealings preventing fraudulent claims and disputes. Therefore, parties to property transactions must strictly comply with registration requirements to protect their interests legally.​

Additional Legal Provisions

s The scope of compulsorily registrable documents has broadened with proposed amendments and draft bills to include electronic submission and Aadhaar-based authentication to further streamline the registration process.

s Document registration also serves as public notice, preventing hidden claims or conflicting interests from arising later.

s Delays in registration can be regularized by paying fines within the prescribed periods, and out-of-India executed documents can also be registered upon arrival if presented timely.

The emergence of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) under the World Trade Organization (WTO) marks a pivotal chapter in the history of global intellectual property governance. Both institutions have played crucial roles in shaping how countries protect and enforce intellectual property rights, balancing the interests of creators, businesses, and the broader public.

Origins of WIPO

WIPO traces its roots back to the late 19th century, beginning with the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property in 1883 and the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works in 1886. These conventions established the first international frameworks for protecting patents, trademarks, and copyrights, allowing creators to secure rights in multiple countries without having to navigate disparate legal systems. The International Bureau created under these conventions eventually evolved into the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property (BIRPI), which later became WIPO in 1970 following the Convention Establishing the World Intellectual Property Organization.​

WIPO was established as a specialized agency of the United Nations to promote the protection of intellectual property worldwide. Its mission encompasses not only the administration of international treaties but also the provision of technical assistance to countries seeking to strengthen their intellectual property systems. Over the years, WIPO has expanded its role to include dispute resolution, capacity building, and the development of new norms in response to technological and societal changes.​

The Birth of the WTO and TRIPS

The creation of the WTO in 1995 marked a significant shift in the global trade regime, integrating intellectual property into the broader framework of international trade rules. The TRIPS Agreement was negotiated during the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) from 1986 to 1994. The inclusion of intellectual property in the WTO agenda was driven by intense lobbying from developed countries, particularly the United States, the European Union, and Japan, who sought to harmonize global standards for patents, trademarks, and copyrights.​

TRIPS established minimum standards for the protection and enforcement of intellectual property rights that all WTO members must adopt in their domestic laws. This agreement covers a wide range of intellectual property categories, including patents, trademarks, copyrights, industrial designs, and geographical indications. By integrating intellectual property into the trade regime, TRIPS aimed to reduce trade conflicts over IP issues and create a predictable, rules-based system for resolving disputes.​

Interplay Between WIPO and WTO-TRIPS

WIPO and the WTO-TRIPS Agreement operate in complementary but distinct spheres. WIPO focuses on the development and administration of international intellectual property treaties, while TRIPS is concerned with the enforcement of these rights in the context of international trade. TRIPS incorporates several WIPO conventions, such as the Paris and Berne Conventions, and requires WTO members to comply with their provisions.​

The collaboration between WIPO and the WTO has strengthened global intellectual property governance by harmonizing standards and facilitating the exchange of information and expertise. For example, WIPO provides technical assistance and capacity building to help countries implement TRIPS obligations, while the WTO monitors compliance and resolves disputes related to intellectual property.​

Impact on Global Intellectual Property Governance

The emergence of WIPO and TRIPS has had profound implications for the global intellectual property landscape. On the one hand, these institutions have enhanced the protection and enforcement of intellectual property rights, fostering innovation and creativity by providing creators with incentives to invest in new ideas and technologies. On the other hand, the harmonization of standards has raised concerns about the impact on access to knowledge, particularly in developing countries.​

The Doha Declaration of 2001, adopted at the Fourth Ministerial Conference of the WTO, addressed some of these concerns by reaffirming the sovereign right of WTO members to grant compulsory licenses for pharmaceuticals in the interest of public health. This initiative highlighted the need to balance patent protection with the broader public interest, particularly in the context of access to medicines and other essential goods.​

Conclusion

The emergence of WIPO and the WTO-TRIPS Agreement represents a significant milestone in the evolution of global intellectual property governance. These institutions have played a crucial role in shaping the legal and policy frameworks that govern the protection and enforcement of intellectual property rights worldwide. While they have contributed to the promotion of innovation and creativity, they have also sparked important debates about the balance between the rights of creators and the needs of society. As the world continues to grapple with new challenges in the realm of intellectual property, the role of WIPO and TRIPS will remain central to the ongoing dialogue about the future of global IP governance

FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions)

What is WIPO?

WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established to promote the protection of intellectual property (IP) worldwide. It administers international treaties, provides technical assistance, and supports global cooperation on IP matters.​

What is the WTO-TRIPS Agreement?

The TRIPS Agreement is an international treaty under the World Trade Organization (WTO) that sets minimum standards for the protection and enforcement of intellectual property rights (IPRs) for all WTO member countries. It covers patents, trademarks, copyrights, industrial designs, and other forms of IP.​

What is the relationship between WIPO and WTO-TRIPS?

WIPO focuses on developing and administering international IP treaties, while TRIPS is concerned with the enforcement of IP rights within the context of international trade. TRIPS incorporates several WIPO conventions, and both organizations collaborate to harmonize global IP standards.​

What are the main flexibilities under the TRIPS Agreement?

TRIPS allows certain flexibilities for WTO members, particularly developing countries, to tailor IP laws to their national needs. These include:

s Flexibilities in implementing TRIPS obligations (e.g., defining novelty and inventiveness).

s Flexibilities in substantive standards (e.g., reducing or increasing protection levels).

s Flexibilities for areas not covered by TRIPS (e.g., traditional knowledge and utility models).​

How does TRIPS affect access to medicines?

TRIPS allows WTO members to issue compulsory licenses for pharmaceuticals in cases of public health emergencies, enabling countries to produce or import generic medicines even if they are patented. The Doha Declaration further clarified these flexibilities to ensure access to medicines for all.​

What types of intellectual property does TRIPS cover?

TRIPS covers a wide range of IP, including:

s Patents (including for new plant varieties)

s Trademarks (including service marks)

s Copyrights

s Industrial designs

s Geographical indications

s Layout-designs of integrated circuits

s Undisclosed information (trade secrets and test data).​

How are disputes over TRIPS resolved?

Disputes regarding TRIPS obligations are resolved through the WTO's dispute settlement mechanism, which allows members to seek resolution if they believe another member is not complying with TRIPS requirements.​

What is the role of WIPO in helping countries implement TRIPS?

WIPO provides technical assistance and advice to countries on how to implement TRIPS flexibilities and develop IP laws that meet both international standards and national interests.​

Can countries set higher IP protection standards than TRIPS requires?

Yes, countries can adopt higher standards of IP protection than those required by TRIPS. These are sometimes referred to as "TRIPS-plus" measures.​

How does TRIPS impact developing countries?

TRIPS sets minimum standards that all WTO members must follow, but it also provides flexibilities that allow developing countries to adapt their IP laws to their economic and social circumstances, including access to medicines and protection of traditional knowledge

Intellectual property law in India is a robust legal framework designed to protect the rights of creators, inventors, and businesses over their original works, inventions, and brands. These laws encourage innovation, foster economic growth, and ensure that creators receive due recognition and benefits for their efforts.​

Overview of Intellectual Property Rights in India

India’s intellectual property regime is governed by several key statutes: the Patents Act, 1970 (amended in 2005), the Trade Marks Act, 1999, the Copyright Act, 1957, the Designs Act, 2000, the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999, the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers Rights Act, 2001, and the Information Technology Act, 2000. These laws collectively safeguard a broad range of intellectual creations, including inventions, artistic works, brand identifiers, industrial designs, and unique geographical products.​

Types of Intellectual Property Rights

s Patents: The Patents Act grants exclusive rights to inventors for their inventions, provided they are novel, non-obvious, and industrially applicable. The patent protection lasts for 20 years from the date of filing, and the inventor can prevent others from making, using, or selling the invention without permission.​

s Trademarks: The Trade Marks Act protects brand names, logos, and other identifiers that distinguish goods and services. Registration is valid for 10 years and can be renewed indefinitely. Owners have exclusive rights to use the mark and can take legal action against infringement or passing off.​

s Copyrights: The Copyright Act covers literary, musical, artistic, cinematographic, and software works. Protection is automatic upon creation, but registration provides evidence of ownership. Copyright lasts for 60 years after the author’s death (or last author’s death in collaborative works). The law also recognizes moral rights and allows for fair use in research, education, and criticism.​

s Industrial Designs: The Designs Act protects the visual design of objects, such as shape, configuration, pattern, or ornamentation. Protection is granted for 10 years and can be extended by another 5 years. Registration is required, and owners can enforce their rights against unauthorized use.​

s Geographical Indications: The GI Act protects products that have a specific geographical origin and possess qualities or reputation due to that origin. Protection is indefinite as long as the product continues to meet the required standards.​

s Plant Varieties and Farmers Rights: This Act protects new plant varieties and recognizes the rights of farmers to save, use, exchange, and sell seeds of protected varieties.​

Importance of Intellectual Property Rights

Intellectual property rights are essential for promoting innovation, creativity, and economic development. They incentivize individuals and businesses to invest time and resources in creating new products and services by ensuring that they can reap the rewards of their efforts. In India, a strong IP regime attracts foreign investment, supports technology transfer, and enhances the competitiveness of Indian industries in the global market.​

Enforcement and Remedies

Indian IP laws provide both civil and criminal remedies for infringement. Owners of intellectual property can seek injunctions to stop unauthorized use, claim damages, and recover profits made by infringers. Criminal penalties, including fines and imprisonment, are available for intentional infringement. The courts in India have shown a growing willingness to protect IP rights, and specialized IP tribunals have been established to expedite dispute resolution.​

Recent Developments and International Compliance

India has strengthened its IP laws to comply with international standards, particularly the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). Recent amendments have modernized the legal framework, improved enforcement mechanisms, and facilitated the registration process. India is also a signatory to various international treaties, such as the Paris Convention and the Berne Convention, which provide for the protection of IP rights across borders.​

Challenges and Future Outlook

Despite progress, challenges remain, including lengthy registration processes, lack of awareness among creators, and difficulties in enforcement, especially in rural areas. However, the government continues to introduce reforms and initiatives to streamline procedures, enhance public awareness, and strengthen enforcement mechanisms.​

In conclusion, intellectual property law in India plays a crucial role in safeguarding the rights of creators and innovators. The legal framework is comprehensive, covering various forms of intellectual property and providing robust remedies for infringement. As India continues to develop its IP regime, it is poised to become a global leader in innovation and creativity.

FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions)

What are the main types of intellectual property rights in India?

India recognizes several types of intellectual property rights, including:

s Patents (for inventions)

s Trademarks (for brand identifiers)

s Copyrights (for creative works)

s Industrial designs (for product appearances)

s Geographical indications (for region-specific goods)

s Trade secrets and layout designs of integrated circuits​

Can ideas be protected under intellectual property law?

Ideas themselves cannot be protected, but their tangible forms—such as inventions, designs, or written works—can be protected under patents, designs, trademarks, or copyrights.​

How long does protection last for each type of intellectual property?

s Patents: 20 years from the filing date​

s Trademarks: 10 years, renewable indefinitely​

s Industrial Designs: 15 years (extendable by 5 years)​

s Copyright: Lifetime of the author plus 60 years​

Can unpublished works be registered for copyright?

Yes, both published and unpublished works can be registered under the Copyright Act in India.​

What is the procedure for registering a copyright?

To register a copyright, one must:

s File Form XIV with the Registrar of Copyrights along with the required fee

s Provide notice to interested parties

s Address any objections within 30 days

s Entry is made in the Register if no objections are received​

Can I patent a literary or artistic work?

No, literary and artistic works are protected under copyright law, not patents.​

What if I have already published my invention—can I still get a patent?

Yes, if the patent application is filed within 12 months of the publication date.​

Are there special provisions for startups regarding intellectual property?

Yes, the Government of India has launched the Scheme for Facilitating Start-ups Intellectual Property Protection (SIPP), which offers professional fee waivers and mentoring for startups seeking to protect their innovations.​

What are the remedies for infringement of intellectual property rights?

Remedies include:

s Civil actions (injunctions, damages, account of profits)

s Criminal penalties (fines, imprisonment) for willful infringement​

What is the National Intellectual Property Rights Policy?

India’s National IPR Policy, launched in 2016, aims to streamline IP processes, promote awareness, encourage commercialization, and strengthen enforcement across all IP rights.​